پایگاه تخصصی سیاست بین الملل (  INPO  )‌

political or military opposition that cannot come out in the open. Often happens in times of war, when a country is occupied by an enemy, as in the French underground during World War II.

the measure of how many unemployed people there are, as a percentage of the available workforce.

involving one side only. Thus when Zimbabwe (then known as Rhodesia) made a unilateral Declaration of Independence from Britain in 1965, it meant that the Declaration was made by only one party out of the two parties involved, i.e. Britain was not part of the agreement.

refers to a situation in which several groups or individuals who have some differences of opinion patch them up in order to deal with others, as in the union leaders put aside their differences and presented a united front to the employers.

The UN was established after World War 11 to solve international disputes that threaten world peace and security. The UN also works to protect human rights; promote the protection of the environment; help the advancement of women and the rights of children; fight epidemics, famine, poverty. It assists refugees, delivers food aid, combats disease and helps expand food production; makes loans to developing countries and helps stabilize financial markets. The UN has six main organs, all based in New York, except the International Court of Justice, which is located at The Hague, Netherlands. The General Assembly is the main deliberative body. All 185 member states are represented in it, and each has one vote. Decisions are usually taken by simple majority. Important questions require a two-thirds majority. The 15-member Security Council has primary responsibility for maintaining peace and security. China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States are permanent members. The other 10 are elected by the Assembly for two-year terms. Other UN organs include the Economic and Social Council, the International Court of Justice (also known as the World Court) and the Secretariat. In addition, there are 14 specialized agencies. The UN is playing an increasing role as peacekeeper in conflicts around the globe. Since 1948, it has carried out more than 40 peacekeeping operations

provides aid and development assistance to children and mothers in developing countries. The headquarters is in New York.

established by the UN Economic and Social Council to promote human rights worldwide; tries to solve problems aroung such issues as the death penalty, freedom of religious beliefs, and racial discrimination. Headquarters is in Geneva, Switzerland.

aims to promote higher standards of living, full employment and economic and social progress in member nations. It issues reports and make recommendations on a wide range of economic, social and cultural matters.

aims to promote collaboration among nations through education, science and culture. The U.S. withdrw from Unesco in 1985, because of its alleged anti-Western bias. Headquarters is in Paris.

the office of the Secretary-General of the United Nations, the chief administrative officer of the U.N. He has the power to bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter that he considers a threat to world peace. The current Secretary-General is Boutros Boutros-Ghali. He recently said that the achievements of the fifty years' of the U.N.'s existence has been to create a workable international system: "We bring hope to the international community."

the theological doctrine that all people, rather than the selected few who belong to a particular faith, will eventually find salvation in God.

the seizing of something, usually a position of power or authority, that is not rightfully one's own. When, for example, the military in Haiti overthrew the democratically elected government of Jean-Bertrand Aristide in 1991, it was an act of usurpation.

the loaning of money at an excessively high rate of interest.

a political philosophy developed in England in the nineteenth century, by thinkers such as Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, which says that the duty of government is to promote "the greatest good for the greatest number." This could be accomplished by actions which promoted pleasure and avoided pain (these being the two things that human were ruled by). Pleasure was not defined in hedonistic terms; being of service to others, for example, could be classified as a "pleasure."

in economics, the ability of a good or service to satisfy human want. It is therefore a psychological thing and cannot be measured in absolute terms. Goods that have utility for one person may not have for another. And goods that have utility for one person at a certain time may not have it at another time.

an imaginary place in which the social and political system is perfect: all citizens have all their needs met in an ideal way. The term refers to a book, Utopia, by Sir Thomas More, published in 1516, although other writers, from Plato on, have described the ideal society. Utopia can also refer to any scheme designed to create an ideal society, and it can sometimes be used to imply that something is well-intentioned but completely impractical.

the foremost part of an advancing army. Used figuratively to refer to being opinion leaders. The Republicans might claim, for example, that since they captured the House and Senate in the elections of November, 1994, they are in the vanguard of social policy and change.

major pronouncements of the Roman Catholic church about the nature of the faith. The first Vatican Council was held in 1869-70. it declared the personal infallibility of the pope when speaking ex cathedra to be a dogma of the church. The second Vatican Council, 1962-65, was notable for its ecumenical and liberalizing spirit. It made a more positive evaluation of the value of other faiths: they could also be channels for God's grace; salvation could be attained by non-Christians.

prolonged bitter hostility.

to cancel or make void (legislation, etc.) The president of the U.S. has a veto power over legislation that Congress passes to him for signing.

a situation in which the solution to one problem merely gives rise to another problem, and the solution to that problem leads back to the first problem, often in a more acute form. An example might be a woman who suffers from domestic violence. In order to solve the problem she leaves her husband, but then she finds herself with another problem: where to live, how to survive. The solution may force her back to her original situation. She is trapped in a vicious circle.

self-appointed individual or group that takes on the responsibility for maintaining law and order in a community, when the normal channels have become ineffective. Vigilante groups have been a feature of life in the troubled areas of Northern Ireland, for example, for over 20 years.

an endorsement on a passport that shows that the holder has a legal right to enter a specific country.

a Latin expression meaning "voice of the people", with implications that popular sentiment is theoretically at one with the divine will. It was usually thought to have occurred during times of crisis when the voice or opinion of the people was made manifest or became evident; monarchs have been dethroned, governments toppled, and revolutions started in the name of vox populi.

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