Islam in Albnaia

Recent History

The country of Albania is located in Eastern Europe. Albania remains the only European country which has a Muslim majority population. The influence on the Albanian population in regards to Islam comes from the rule of the Ottoman Empire 1385-1876.After a civil war (1944) between the Communist and a nationalist group, the Communist and their leader Enver Hoxha took power. Hoxha banned all religion in Albania including Islam. The regime filled Albanians with nationalist propaganda, fears of foreign occupation, restricting travel abroad. Albania’s Muslim population was significantly impacted by the secular communist government.

منابع مناسب برای آزمون زبان عمومی دکتری گرایش های علوم سیاسی

آزمون زبان عمومی همچنان که بسیاری از داوطلبان در آزمون کارشناسی ارشد یا سایر آزمون های زبان با آن برخورد داشته اند به گونه ای نیست که بتوان منبع جامع و کاملی برای آن معرفی کرد و معمولا سطح کلی آشنایی با زبان داوطلبان را محک می زنند. کتابهای زیر که به عنوان منابع مناسب زبان عمومی آزمون دکتری معرفی می گردند کتاب هایی است که دقیقا آزمون های زبان عمومی را در سطح دکتری یا کارشناسی ارشد هدف گیری نموده اند و تلاش کرده اند لغات و قواعد رایج این گونه آزمون ها را به صورت مشخص تری ارائه نمایند تا داوطلبانی که معمولا با مشکل صرف زمان بر روی درس زبان عمومی مواجه هستند فراغت بیشتری برای سایر دروس خود پیدا کنند.

The sequencing of content in a broadcast is called a schedule. As with all technological endeavours, a number of technical terms and slang have developed. A list of these terms can be found at List of broadcasting terms. Television and radio programs are distributed through radio broadcasting or cable, often both simultaneously. By coding signals and having a cable converter box with decoding equipment in homes, the latter also enables subscription-based channels, pay-tv and pay-per-view services.

A guide to the life and career of Sir Winston Churchill

By Piers Brendon

Winston's childhood was not a particularly happy one. Like many Victorian parents, Lord and Lady Randolph Churchill were distant. The family Nanny, Mrs Everest, became a surrogate mother to Winston and his younger brother, John S Churchill.

لغات تخصصی سیاسی 17-18    POLITICAL DICTIONARY The Letter Q & R

لغات تخصصی سیاسی 15       POLITICAL DICTIONARY The Letter O

POLITICAL DICTIONARY The Letter N

POLITICAL DICTIONARY The Letter M

پیمان ورشو در سال 1955 بین 7 کشور اروپای شرقی به امضا رسید.پیمان ورشو که نام اصلی آن پیمان کمک متقابل کشورهای اروپای شرقی است در 15 مه سال 1955 به عنوان پاسخی به توسعۀ سازمان پیمان آتلانتیک شمالی و پیوستن آلمان‌غربی به آن، بین اتحاد جماهیر شوروی و 7 کشور دیگر اروپای شرقی (جمهوری دمکراتیک آلمان (آلمان شرقی)، لهستان، مجارستان، چکسلواکی، رومانی، بلغارستان و آلبانی) در ورشو امضاء شد. مطالعه این متن تخصصی به علاقه مندان تاریخ روابط بین الملل توصیه می شود.

The Red Army began to form, train, and arm Polish and Czechoslovak national units on Soviet territory in 1943. These units fought with the Red Army as it carried its offensive westward into German-occupied Poland and Czechoslovakia and then into Germany itself. By contrast, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania were wartime enemies of the Soviet Union. Although ruled by ostensibly fascist regimes, these countries allied with Nazi Germany mainly to recover territories lost through the peace settlements of World War I or seized by the Soviet Union under the terms of the 1939 Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact.

TOEFLبهتر است یا IELTS

TOEFL or IELTS – Which is Better?

برای ادامه تحصیل در مقطع دکتری یا ادامه تحصیل در خارج از کشور یا پیشرفت و توسعه فعالیت های علمیتان و ... یا اگر کسی هستید که به نوعی مشتاق یادگیری زبان هستید باید به هر حال زبان انگلیسی را بیاموزید . اما در این میان یادگیری کافی نیست ، مدرک هم اهمیت دارد. اگر شما سوادی در سطح کارشناس ارشد روابط بین الملل داشته باشید ولی فقد مدرک معتبر باشید مطمئن باشید دستیابی به موفقیت برای شما خیلی دشوار و تقریباً محال است زیرا اگرچه مدرک گرایی امری مذموم است ولی لاجرم هر سازمان یا نهادی برای اطمینان از صلاحیت علمی شما به مدرک معتبر شما رجوع می کند . در این میان زبان انگلیسی هم از این قاعده مستثنی نیست و شما که پا به وادی علم نهاده اید باید از این سد بگذرید . با توجه به سولات مطرح شده از سوی دوستان ، پایگاه سیاست بین الملل ( اینپا ) در بخش آمادگی برای آزمون دکتری مقالاتی را برای راهنمایی علاقه مندان به موفقیت در آزمون هآی تافل (TOEFL) و ای التس ( IELTS ) قرار داده است . در مقاله پیوست به تبیین برتر بودن تافل یا آی التس پراداخته می شود ( این نقاله به زبان انگلیسی است ) بهتر است از همین حالا شروع کنید . ( اینپا )

TOEFL (Test Of English as a Foreign Language)

IELTS (International English Language Testing System

 زبان تخصصي  : THE ORIGIN OF WAR

‌

This is not a book that is easy to read, or to review. It is the unedited doctoral dissertation presented by a long-time member of the Polemological Institute to the Law Faculty in the University of Groningen. Its long text comprises, in addition to a massive bibliography, of some 5000 items, and a full ethnographic inventory of peaceful societies, eight substantive chapters, that are each almost a monograph. Some of these are elaborations or remakes of published articles or chapters in edited books, and others that were written from scratch over a period of l5 years, and there is much overlap. Most difficult of all, perhaps, is the fact that the book consists almost entirely of reviews of a great variety of literatures

عبور از سد تافل (TOEFL) و ای التس ( IELTS )

تافل چیست؟

برای ادامه تحصیل در مقطع دکتری یا ادامه تحصیل در خارج از کشور یا پیشرفت و توسعه فعالیت های علمیتان و ... یا اگر کسی هستید که به نوعی مشتاق یادگیری زبان هستید باید به هر حال زبان انگلیسی را بیاموزید . اما در این میان یادگیری کافی نیست ، مدرک هم اهمیت دارد. اگر شما سوادی در سطح کارشناس ارشد روابط بین الملل داشته باشید ولی فقد مدرک معتبر باشید مطمئن باشید دستیابی به موفقیت برای شما خیلی دشوار و تقریباً محال است زیرا اگرچه مدرک گرایی امری مذموم است ولی لاجرم هر سازمان یا نهادی برای اطمینان از صلاحیت علمی شما به مدرک معتبر شما رجوع می کند . در این میان زبان انگلیسی هم از این قاعده مستثنی نیست و شما که پا به وادی علم نهاده اید باید از این سد بگذرید . با توجه به سولات مطرح شده از سوی دوستان ، پایگاه سیاست بین الملل ( اینپا ) در بخش آمادگی برای آزمون دکتری مقالاتی را برای راهنمایی علاقه مندان به موفقیت در آزمون هآی تافل (TOEFL) و ای التس ( IELTS ) قرار داده است . این مقاله تافل چیست نام دارد .

TOEFL (Test Of English as a Foreign Language)

IELTS (International English Language Testing System)

زبان تخصصي :‌ ( بین الملل گرایی 4 ) Cosmopolitanisms

زبان تخصصي :‌ ( بین الملل گرایی 3 ) Cosmopolitanisms

1.3 Cosmopolitanism in the 19th and 20th Centuries

Enlightenment cosmopolitanism has continued to be a source of debate in the subsequent two centuries. First, in the nineteenth century, economic globalization provoked fierce reactions. Marx and Engels tagged cosmopolitanism as an ideological reflection of capitalism. They regard market capitalism as inherently expansive, breaking the bounds of the nation-state system, as evidenced by the fact that production and consumption had become attuned to faraway lands.

عبور از سد تافل (TOEFL) و ای التس ( IELTS )

برای ادامه تحصیل در مقطع دکتری یا ادامه تحصیل در خارج از کشور یا پیشرفت و توسعه فعالیت های علمیتان و ... یا اگر کسی هستید که به نوعی مشتاق یادگیری زبان هستید باید به هر حال زبان انگلیسی را بیاموزید . اما در این میان یادگیری کافی نیست ، مدرک هم اهمیت دارد. اگر شما سوادی در سطح کارشناس ارشد روابط بین الملل داشته باشید ولی فقد مدرک معتبر باشید مطمئن باشید دستیابی به موفقیت برای شما خیلی دشوار و تقریباً محال است زیرا اگرچه مدرک گرایی امری مذموم است ولی لاجرم هر سازمان یا نهادی برای اطمینان از صلاحیت علمی شما به مدرک معتبر شما رجوع می کند . در این میان زبان انگلیسی هم از این قاعده مستثنی نیست و شما که پا به وادی علم نهاده اید باید از این سد بگذرید . با توجه به سولات مطرح شده از سوی دوستان ، پایگاه سیاست بین الملل ( اینپا ) در بخش آمادگی برای آزمون دکتری مقالاتی را برای راهنمایی علاقه مندان به موفقیت در آزمون هآی تافل (TOEFL) و ای التس ( IELTS ) قرار داده است . اولین مقاله توسط دکتر سیروس فیضی نگاشته شده است . 

TOEFL (Test Of English as a Foreign Language) 

IELTS (International English Language Testing System)

زبان تخصصي :‌ ( بین الملل گرایی 2 ) Cosmopolitanisms

1.2 Early Modern and Enlightenment Cosmopolitanism

Cosmopolitanism slowly began to come to the fore again with the renewed study of more ancient texts, but during the humanist era cosmopolitanism still remained the exception. Despite the fact that ancient cosmopolitan sources were well-known and that many humanists emphasized the essential unity of all religions, they did not develop this idea in cosmopolitan terms. A few authors, however, most notably Erasmus of Rotterdam, explicitly drew on ancient cosmopolitanism to advocate the ideal of a world-wide peace. Emphasizing the unity of humankind over its division into different states and peoples, by arguing that humans are destined by Nature to be sociable and live in harmony, Erasmus pleaded for national and religious tolerance and regarded like-minded people as his compatriots (Querela Pacis).

The challenge of globalisation

For the better part of the last century, conceptions of citizenship, despite many differences, have had one thing in common: the idea that the necessary framework for citizenship is the sovereign, territorial state. The legal status of citizen appears as the formal expression of membership in a polity that has definite territorial boundaries within which citizens enjoy rights and exercise their political agency.

Citizenship and borders

Does the political community have the moral right to decide who can/cannot become a citizen or mustn't we recognize the right to free movement? Much of the philosophical debate has turned around two issues: first, on the nature of our obligations towards people from impoverished countries who seek better lives for themselves and their families; second, on the moral status of political communities and their supposed right to protect their integrity by excluding non members.

World Government

‘World government’ refers to the idea of all humankind united under one common political authority. Arguably, it has not existed so far in human history, yet proposals for a unified global political authority have existed since ancient times — in the ambition of kings, popes and emperors, and the dreams of poets and philosophers.

متن بیانیه رئیس شورای امنیت در خصوص حمله اسرائل به کاروان صلح غزه

  Statement by the President of the Security Council

NO: S/PRST/2010/9

“The Security Council deeply regrets the loss of life and injuries resulting form the use of force during the Israeli military operation in international waters against the convoy sailing to Gaza.  The Council, in this context, condemns those acts which resulted in the loss of at least 10 civilians and many wounded, and expresses its condolences to their families.

High Politics سیاست اولی

Within international relations, and political science as a whole, the concept high politics covers all matters that are vital to the very survival of the State: namely national and international security concerns. It is often used in opposition to "low politics". ...

Power Politics سیاست قدرت

 Power politics, or Machtpolitik (borrowed from German), is a state of international relations in which sovereigns protect their own interests by threatening one another with military, economic, or political aggression... 

زبان تخصصي :‌ (‌ مفاهیم تخصصی 5)  5‌International relations Concepts

Postmodernism  پست مدرنیسم

 Postmodernism is a term applied to a wide-ranging set of developments in critical theory, philosophy, architecture, art, literature, and culture, which are generally characterized as either emerging from, in reaction to, or superseding, modernism.Postmodernism (sometimes abbreviated Pomo) was originally a reaction to modernism (not necessarily "post" in the purely temporal sense of "after"). Largely influenced by the disillusionment induced by the Second World War, postmodernism tends to refer to a cultural, intellectual, or artistic state lacking a clear central hierarchy or organizing principle and embodying extreme complexity, contradiction, ambiguity, diversity, and interconnectedness or interreferentiality.

زبان تخصصي :‌ (‌ مفاهیم تخصصی ۴)  ۴‌International relations Concepts

توازن قوا - موازنه قوا Balance of power (BoP)

Balance of power (BoP) in international relations is a central concept in neorealist theory. Within a balance of power system, a state may choose to engage in either balancing or bandwagoning behavior. In a time of war, the decision to balance or to bandwagon may well determine the survival of the state. A balance of power exists when there is parity or stability between competing forces. As a term in international law for a 'just equilibrium' between the members of the family of nations, it expresses the doctrine intended to prevent any one nation from becoming sufficiently strong so as to enable it to enforce its will upon the rest.

زبان تخصصي :‌ (‌ مفاهیم تخصصی ۳)  ۳ ‌International relations Concepts

Ambassador:   و سفیر Arms control  : کنترل تسلیحات

An ambassador is a diplomatic official accredited to a foreign sovereign or government, or to an international organization, to serve as the official representative of his or her own country. In everyday usage it applies to the ranking government representative stationed in a foreign capital. The host country typically allows the ambassador control of specific territory called an embassy, whose territory, staff, and even vehicles are generally afforded diplomatic immunity in the host country.

Arms control  : کنترل تسلیحات

Arms control is an umbrella term for restrictions upon the development, production, stockpiling, proliferation, and usage of weapons, especially weapons of mass destruction. Arms control is typically exercised through the use of diplomacy which seeks to impose such limitations upon consenting participants through international treaties and agreements, although it may also comprise efforts by a nation or group of nations to enforce limitations upon a non-consenting country.

زبان تخصصي :‌ ‌ مفاهیم تخصصی 2 

Absolute Gain 

 منفعت مطلق

As a part of liberal international relations theory, absolute gain is a term used to describe how (primarily) states will act in the international community. The theory says that international actors will look at the total effect of a decision on the state or organization and act accordingly....

زبان تخصصي :‌ (‌ مفاهیم تخصصی 1 )  1 ‌International relations Concepts

Absolute Advantage  ( مزیت مطلق )

 A country has an absolute advantage over another in producing a good, if it can produce that good using less resources than another country. For example if one unit of labor in Scotland can produce 80 units of wool or 20 units of wine; while in Spain one unit of labor makes 50 units of wool or 75 units of wine, then Scotland has an absolute advantage in producing wool and Spain has an absolute advantage in producing wine. Scotland can get more wine with its labor by specializing in wool and trading the wool for Spanish wine, while Spain can benefit by trading wine for wool. (Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, Book IV, Ch.2.) The benefits to nations from trading are the same as to individuals: trade permits specialization, which allows resources to be used more productively.

زبان تخصصي :‌ (‌ نظريه هاي روابط بين الملل4  ) 4 ‌International relations theories

World Capitalist System  

  سیستم سرمایه داری جهانی
An approach to international relations that emphasises the impact of the world wide spread of capitalism. It focuses on class and economic relations and the division of the world into a dominant centre or core of industrialised countries, a subordinate periphery of less developed countries and a semi-periphery of countries that occupy an intermediate position between core and periphery (Viotti, P. and M. Kauppi, (eds.). 1987. International Relations Theory. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York).

‌International relations theories  3

Game Theory
A decision-making approach based on the assumption of actor rationality in a situation of competition. Each actor tries to maximize gains or minimize losses under conditions of uncertainty and incomplete information, which requires each actor to rank order preferences, estimate probabilities, and try to discern what the other actor is going to do. In a two-person zero-sum game, what one actor wins the other loses; if A wins, 5, B loses 5, and the sum is zero. In a two-person non-zero or variable sum game, gains and losses are not necessarily equal; it is possible that both sides may gain. This is sometimes referred to as a positive-sum game. In some games, both parties can lose, and by different amounts or to a different degree. So-called n-person games include more than two actors or sides. Game theory has contributed to the development of models of deterrence and arms race spirals, but it is also the basis for work concerning the question of how collaboration among competitive states in an anarchic world can be achieved: The central problem is that the rational decision for an individual actor such as a state may be to "defect" and go it alone as opposed to taking a chance on collaboration with another state actor. Dealing with this problem is a central concern of much of the literature on international regimes, regional integration, and conflict resolution (Viotti, P. and M. Kauppi, (eds.). 1987. International Relations Theory. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York).

جدول مقایسه نظریه های روابط بین الملل

برای مشاهده جدول در مقیاس بزرگ روی تصویر کلیک کنید .

 ‌International relations theories 2

Constructivism

Constructivist theory rejects the basic assumption of neo-realist theory that the state of anarchy (lack of a higher authority or government) is a structural condition inherent in the system of states. Rather, it argues, in Alexander Wendt's words, that 'Anarchy is what states make of it'. That is, anarchy is a condition of the system of states because states in some sense 'choose' to make it so. Anarchy is the result of a process that constructs the rules or norms that govern the interaction of states. The condition of the system of states today as self-helpers in the midst of anarchy is a result of the process by which states and the system of states was constructed. It is not an inherent fact of state-to-state relations. Thus, constructivist theory holds that it is possible to change the anarchic nature of the system of states. (See Alexander Wendt, 'Anarchy is What States Make of It', International Organization, 46, 2, Spring 1992.)

 International relations theories ( 1 )

۱ - Balance of Power Theory

تئوري موارنه قدرت

As a theory, balance of power predicts that rapid changes in international power and status—especially attempts by one state to conquer a region—will provoke counterbalancing actions. For this reason, the balancing process helps to maintain the stability of relations between states. A balance of power system functions most effectively when alliances are fluid, when they are easily formed or broken on the basis of expediency, regardless of values, religion, history, or form of government. Occasionally a single state plays a balancer role, shifting its support to oppose whatever state or alliance is strongest. A weakness of the balance of power concept is the difficulty of measuring power.

۲ -Behavioralism  ۳- Chaos Theory ۴- Classical Realism ۵- Collective Defence and ...

زبان تخصصي :‌ ( بین الملل گرایی 1 )  Cosmopolitanisms

The political culture idealized in the writings of Plato and Aristotle is not cosmopolitan. In this culture, a man identifies himself first and foremost as a citizen of a particular polis or city, and in doing so, he signals which institutions and which body of people hold his allegiance. He would then be counted on for help in defending the city from attacks, sustaining its institutions of justice, and contributing to its common good. In this way, his own pursuit of a good life is inextricably bound to the fate of the city and to the similar pursuit carried out by other inhabitants of the city. By contrast, the good person would not be expected to share with or serve any foreigners who live outside the city. Any cosmopolitan expectations on a good Athenian extended only to concern for those foreigners who happen to reside in Athens.