پایگاه تخصصی سیاست بین الملل (  INPO  )‌

a crime against humanity, such as deliberate killing of civilians or mistreatment of prisoners, committed during a war. The most notorious example of war crimes in recent history are those committed by Nazi Germany during World War II. In 1946, at the Nuremberg Tribunal in Nuremberg, Germany, 24 leading Nazis were tried by the victorious allied powers for war crimes. Nineteen were found guilty and 12 were sentenced to death. The subject came up again in the context of the 1992-95 war in Bosnia, where atrocities perpetrated by Serbs against Moslem civilians led to war crimes charges being brought against Serb leaders.

a low-level political functionary in a ward. A ward is a district of a city or town for administrative or voting purposes. Heeler is an allusion to a dog that obeys its master when called to heel. A ward heeler might solicit votes for his party or perform small tasks for his political bosses. The term is used contemptuously, implying that the ward heeler is a subservient hanger-on of politicans more important than himself.

the head, or front section, of a weapon such as a torpedo, rocket or other projectile that contains the explosive charge, as in nuclear warhead.

the military organization of Eastern Europe signed in Warsaw, Poland in 1955, by Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and the Soviet Union. It was a communist counterpart to NATO. Warsaw Pact members were bound to assist each other in the event of an attack on any one of them. Albania withdrew in 1961. The Warsaw Pact collaborated in the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968-the only time it took military action. The Pact was ended as a military alliance in 1991, when the demise of communism and the end of the Cold War made it superflous.

the financial resources of a government. For example, the Ways and Means Committee of the House of Representatives, which considers everything relating to the raising of revenues.

public financial or other assistance (food stamps, for example) given to people who meet certain standards of eligibility regarding income and assets.

a state which supplies a large number of social services to its citizens, as a right, without requiring them to pay directly for them.

the adopting of Western habits, customs, forms of government and social organization, often applied to Third World countries seeking to modernize and industrialize their economies. Westernization can have a backlash, however, if it is done too quickly or without respect for local culture. A classic example is Iran under the Shah, who from 1953 to the 1970s tried to westernize the country but only succeeded in igniting Islamic traditionalists against him.

The term is derived from fox-hunting in England. It was adopted by political parties in the British parliament, and the U.S. borrowed the term from the British. A whip is the legislator responsible for enforcing party discipline or strategy; he assists the leadership in managing its legislative agenda. Part of the whip's responsibility is to keep track of legislation and try to ensure that all members are present when an important vote takes place, or if not, that a "pairing" arrangement is made with the opposing party. The majority whip is the whip of the party that controls the House or Senate; after the majority leader, he is the senior party figure in each house. The same applies to the minority whip.

something that is of little use or profit, especially something that is maintained at great expense. Some in Britain argue that the Falkland Islands, which Britain retained pssession of after a war with Argentina in 1982, are a white elephant, because they cost a huge amount of money to defend, and yet they are very small and have only a tiny population.

the modern women's movement began in the 1960s, when it was known as the Women's Liberation Movement. It arose out of the civil rights movement, when women began to perceive that like an oppressed minority, they too needed to take radical action to secure their rights. The National Organization for Women (NOW) was created in 1966, and remains one of the spearheads of the women's movement, which attempts to promote the progress of women in all spheres of life. Discrimination in employment is a key issue, and feminists have sought to promote the principle of equal pay for equal work or for work of equal value. Discrimination in education has been eased by the passing in 1972 of Title IX of the Educational Amendments, which banned discrimination based on sex in educational activities and programs funded by the federal government. The women's movement also promoted the Equal Rights Amendment (which failed to be ratifed in 1982), and has fought to legalize abortion and keep it legal. Other issues, such as sexual harrassment, rape, and domestic violence against women have also been successfully pushed to the forefront of national awareness by the women's movement.

industrial workers, and others, skilled and unskilled, who work in manual occupations, as a class. In Marxist thought, the working class is referred to as the proletariat.

formally known as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development; its purpose is to promote economic and social progress in developing nations by raising productivity; it lends funds, provides advice, stimulates outside investments. World Bank funds come primarily from money raised in the world capital markets. Headquarters is in Washington, DC.

the goal of some internationalists for centuries. William Penn, the founder of the Quakers, had a plan for a world government, as did the eighteenth century German philosopher Immanuel Kant. The world rule of the proletariat also plays a part in Marxism. But the idea of one world government has never been a serious possibility; the strength of nationalism and the rivalry of different economic and social systems would seem to make it impractical. In spite of this, conspiracy theorists today believe that a plot to create a world government, involving the United Nations, international bankers, and sections of the U.S. government, is well advanced.

international health agency of the UN which promotes the highest level of health care for all peoples. WHO emphasizes health care for developing nations by helping them develop new technologies and utilize existing ones. Headquarters is in Geneva, Switzerland.

irrational dislike of foreign people and foreign things.